The Impossible Zoo

by Leo Ruickbie

Genres: Fairy Tales, Folk Tales, Legends & Mythology

Synopsis

'Leo Ruickbie's impeccably-written The Impossible Zoo is a menagerie like no other, as its exotic inhabitants are fabulous in every sense of the word. So for anyone who has ever wished that dragons and unicorns were real, for anyone who believes that they are, and for anyone who peruses bestiaries with unbridled joy, this magical, mystical, and truly memorable book is definitely for you - and for me!' Dr Karl Shuker, author of A Manifestation of Monsters HERE BE DRAGONS! Here you will find the things that once made the woods wild and the nights to be feared; that made ancient map-makers write, 'Here be Dragons'. The Impossible Zoo is a biology of the supernatural - a study of the life of things that never lived. This world of mermaids and unicorns, now confined to fantasy, but once believed to exist, is a world of the imagination that still affects us today. Wonderfully illustrated throughout, it also provides sources as a guide to further study and exploration. 'For anyone who has ever wished that dragons and unicorns were real, this magical, mystical and truly memorable book is definitely for you - and for me!' Dr Karl Shuker, author of A Manifestation of Monsters 'Ruickbie's level of scholarship is impressive and he presents his conclusions with great literary skill in readable and attractive prose. The results are truly fascinating. Very highly recommended.' Revd Lionel Fanthorpe, FRSA, author and President of the Association for the Scientific Study of Anomalous Phenomena

Release date: September 8, 2016

Publisher: Robinson

Print pages: 272

Sample

Introduction

A Note on Sources

A

A’nasa

Aatxe

Abaasy

Abada

Abaia

Abath

Abominable Snowman, see Yeti

Achlis

Adar Llwch Gwin

Adar Rhiannon

Afanc

Ahäst, see Bäckahäst

Ahuizotl

Ajatar

Akhekh

Alce

Alerion

Alien Big Cat

Allocamelus

Alphyn

Alu

Ammut

Amphisbaena

Anchu, see Onchú

Animalia Paradoxa

Ant

Antelope Hodgsonii

Anubis

Anzu, see Zu Bird

Apep

Apis

Aspides

Aspidochelone

Aspis

Aughisky

Avalerion, see Alerion

Azi Dahak

B

Bäckahäst

Bagwyn

Balaena

Barghest

Barnacle Goose

Basilisk

Bašmu

Beannach-Nimhe

Beast of the Apocalypse

Beast out of the Sea

Beast out of the Earth

Beast of the Charred Forests

Beast of Gévaudan

Behemoth

Beithir

Bennu

Biasd-na-scrogaig

Bigfoot

Blá-góma

Black Dog

Black Shuck

Bonasus

Boobrie

Brag, see Picktree Brag

Bran

Buckland’s Nondescript

Bunyip

C

Cailleach-Uisge

Cait Sith

Caladrius

Caldelia

Calydonian Boar

Cambridge Centaur

Camelopard

Campe

Capelthwaite

Caprimulgus

Cat, winged

Catoblepes

Cattle of Geryon, see Geryon

Ceffyl Dŵr

Centaur

Centicore, see Yale

Cephus

Cerastes

Cerberus

Ceryneian Hind

Chama

Charybdis

Chersina

Chelydros

Chimæra

Chol

Chrysaor

Chrysomallus

Chupacabra

Church Grim

Cinnamologus

Cirein Cròin

Cock, Talking

Cockatrice

Cockfish

Cretan Bull

Cro Sith

Crocodile

Crocotta

Crommyonian Sow

Cu Sith

Cutty Black Sow, see Hwch Ddu Gwta

Cŵn Annwn

Cynocephalus

Cyonoeides

D

Dagon

Dammhast (Dam-Horse), see Bäckahäst

Dandy-Dog

Delphine, see Python

Ddraig Goch

Diomedeæ

Dobhar-Chú

Dog

Dog-Collared Sombre Blackbird

Dragon

The Natural History of Dragons

The Dragon in the Bestiaries

The Evidence for Dragons

Dragon, Chinese

Drangue

Dudley Locust

Dunnie

E

Each-Sith

Each-Uisge

Eale, see Yale

Echeneïs

Echidna

Elephant

Emmet

Enbarr

Enfield

Ercinee, see Hercynia

Erymanthian Boar

Exocoetus

Extraordinary Fish

F

Faun

Fearsome Critters

Fenghuang

Fenrir

Fire Bird

Fire-Drake

Formicoleon

Fuwch Frech

Fur-Bearing Trout

G

Gabriel’s Hounds

Galgulus

Gally-Trot

Gargouille

Garmr

Garuda

Geryon

Gigelorum

Girtablilu

Glaistig

Glashtyn

Glycon

Goat-Sucker, see Caprimulgus and Chupacabra

Golden Limpet

Goomcher

Gooseberry-Wife

Grave-Sow, see Kirkegrim

Griffin

Grim, see Church Grim

Gruck

Gryllus

Gullfaxi

Guytrash

Gwyllgi

H

Haemorrhois

Hafgufa

Hai Ho Shang

Halcyon

Halsydrus Pontoppidani

Harpy

Havestramb

Hedley Kow

Helhest

Heptet

Hercynia

Heren-Suge

Hippalectryon

Hippocampus

Hippocentaur, see Centaur

Hippogriff

Hippoi Athanatoi

Hippotayne

Hnikur

Hodgson’s Antelope, see Antelope Hodgsonii

Hófvarpnir

Hooden Horse

Hoodwink

Horse

Horse-Eel

Horus

Hounds of Annwn, see Cŵn Annwn

Hrae-Svelgr

Hrōkk-áll

Humbaba

Hydra

Hydrarchos Sillimannii

Hyena

Hwch Ddu Gwta

I

Ichneumon

Ichthyocentaur

Illhvel

Irish Crocodile

Island Fish

J

Jackalope

Jaculus

Jalebha

Jala-Turanga

Jasconius

Jenny Haniver

Jörmungandr

K

Kappa

Katzenknäuel

Kelpie

Kinnara

King Charles I’s Parrot

Kirkegrim

Kirkelam

Klapperbock

Kludde

Knucker

Kraken

Krampus

Kulullu

Kur

Kusarikku

L

Ladon

Lahmu

Laidley Worm

Lalage Melanothorax

Lamassu

Lambton Worm

Lamia

Lavellan

Legless Bird of Paradise

Leocampus

Leontophonus

Lepus Cornutus

Lernæan Hydra

Leucrocuta

Leviathan

Lich-Fowl

Licorne

Limgrim

Lindworm

Linton Worm

Lizard-Headed Fish

Llamhigyn Y Dwr

Loch Ness Monster

Lod-Silungur

Löwenmensch

Luctifer

Lummekoira

Lycaon

Lynx

M

Machlis, see Achlis

Maighdeann Mhara

Manticore

Marathonian Bull, see Cretan Bull

Mares of Diomedes

Margya

Mari Llwyd

Meleagrides

Memnonides

Mermaid

Feejee Mermaid

Mice of the Nile

Mindi

Minotaur

Missourium

Moldwarpe

Mongolian Death Worm

Monoceros

Mooncalf

More

Myrmex Indikos

Myrmecoleon, see Formicoleon

N

Nāga

Näkki

Nautilos

Ndzoodzoo

Neck, see Nicker

Nemean Lion

Nereid

Nessie, see Loch Ness Monster

Nicker

Níðhöggr

Night-Hawk

Night-Lizard

Night-Raven

Nintu

Nixie

Njogel

Noctifer

Nök, see Nicker

Nuckelavee

O

Oannes

Octopus, giant

Odontotyrranos

Once, see Lynx

Onchú

Opinicus

Orthus

Oryx

Oschaert

Otter, Giant

Master Otter

P

Padfoot

Pan

Papilio Ecclipsis

Pardalocampus

Pegasus

Phoenix

Phorcys

Physeter

Piast (péist)

Picktree Brag

Pictish Beast

Pig-Faced Lady

Pismire

Pongo

Pristes

Prester

Pygmy Bison

Pyralis

Python

Q

Quetzalcoatl

R

Ram-Fish

Rana-Piscis

Rat King

Raven

Ravens of Owain

Raven, White

Rawuzel

Re’em

Rhinoceros Bird, see Tragopanades

River-Dragon

River-Whale

Roc

Rore-Trold

S

Salamander

Salpuga

Sapaksha-Simhah

Sassu-Wunnu

Satyr

Scitalis, see Scytale

Scopes

Scorpion

Scylla

Scytale

Sea Bishop

Sea Calf

Sea Cow, see Cro Sith

Sea Dog

Sea Eagle

Sea Elephant

Sea Hare

Sea Monk

Sea Monster

Sea Mouse

Sea Serpent

Seleucides

Selkie

Senmurv, see Simurgh

Seps

Serapis

Serpent

Serpent, Winged

Serqet

Set

Seven Whistlers, see Whistler

Shamir

Shedu

Shellycoat

Shoopiltee

Siggahfoops

Simurgh

Siren

Sjöhästen, see Bäckahäst

Skriker, see Trash

Sleipnir

Snake, see Serpent

Snakestone

Sphinx

Stellio

Stoorworm

Strix

Stymphalides

Suhurmasu

Svaðilfari

T

Tacharan

Tahash

Tangie

Taniwha

Tanysiptera Nympha

Tarandus

Tarantula Sea Spider

Tarasque

Tarbh-Uisge

Tatzelwurm

Taurocampus

Thos

Thoth

Thunder Bird

Tiamat

Tirynthian Serpent

Tragopanades

Trash

Triton

Turtle, Giant

Typhon

U

Uatchet

Ugallu

Unicorn

African Unicorn

American Unicorn

Modern Unicorns

Unicorn Stag

Uraeus

Uridimmu

Urmahlilu

V

Vatna-Gedda

Vattenhäst, see Bäckahäst

Vedrfolnir

Vegetable Lamb of Tartary

Vichschelm

Vidofnir

Vitrysk Strandmuddlare

W

Wadjet, see Uatchet

Warg

Water-Horse

Waterton’s Nondescript

Werewolf

Whale

Whirlepoole

Whistler

White Horse of Spey

Wight

Wild Beast of Barrisdale

Winged Cat, see Cat, Winged

Wirry-Cow

Wish Hound, see Yeth Hound

Wolf

Wolpertinger

Woofen-Poof

Worm

Wulver

Wurrum

Wyrm, see Worm

Wyvern

X

Xecotcovach

Xiuhcoatl

Y

Yacu Mama

Yahoo

Yale

Yeth Hound

Yeti

Z

Zahhak, see Azi Dahak

ŽAltys

Ziz

Zu Bird

Bibliography

Manuscripts

Published Sources

Picture Credits

Index

He who does not expect the unexpected will not find it,’ said the Ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, ‘since it is trackless and unexplored.’ Unexpected certainly, yet it is not altogether trackless nor unexplored. We have folklore, mythology, legend, travellers’ tales, even news stories of today all describing animals that cannot be and have never been scientifically catalogued. This is the world of what I call ‘parazoology’: para- because it is beyond the range of normal zoology; para- because it makes us think of paranormal and parapsychology. It is not cryptozoology, the study of hidden (‘crypto-’) animals, because I do not suppose that any of them can be found. It is the biology of the supernatural; a study of the life of things that never lived. It is the world of mermaids and unicorns, confined now to fantasy, but once believed to exist; a world of the imagination that can still affect us today. Included are all the creatures of legend, beasts of fable and monsters of mythology, but not the transient products of modern culture. This is not Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. This is the ‘real’ thing. Here are the things that made the woods wild and the night fearsome; the things that made cartographers of old write ‘Here be dragons’ on their maps. Here in this collection are the things that natural science has ruled out, yet still find their role in history and the social sciences. This is the Impossible Zoo.

It is a vast world and these monsters are legion, so how should we choose which of them to study? If these things truly existed, which of them would we put into a real zoo? The short answer is nothing too much like ourselves. In the possible zoo we may gawp at primates, but not pygmies, for example. So it is in the impossible zoo. Thus we will find fairy animals, but not the fairies themselves; we will find Alien Big Cats, but not Little Green Men or Greys; we will find animalistic Egyptian gods, but not anthropomorphic Ancient Greek ones. In a sense, it is a catalogue of our imaginings of the animal world.

As in a real zoo the cages must all vary in size, but here it is the importance of the animal rather than its physical dimensions that determine how big that cage is. Although one must concede that dragons are both large and important, consequently they will occupy a proportionate space in these pages. The labels to each cage will attempt to convey as much information as is known about the creature in question as far as is possible and are structured to provide details on etymology, name variants, description and sources.

As with any zoo, the primary purpose is entertainment, but again real zoos also serve more serious purposes. Here you will have the opportunity to study these fabulous beasts in more detail through the many illustrations provided, as well as the text, and the sources give a guide to further study and exploration.

In general, the fabulous, mythical and legendary beasts can be divided into four sorts: a) normal animals of extraordinary size; b) mostly normal animals that can become other mostly normal animals; c) composite animals that create new forms not found in nature; and d) misidentification and misdescription of existing animals. In class a) are all the giant fish (whales), giant snakes, and giant this and that. In class b) are those, usually, fairy creatures that can be one thing and then another: the black dog that can also be a pig or a bull, or even a human, for example; they are often also of extraordinary or at least remarkable size. In class c) are the classic monsters – the griffin, the harpy, Pegasus and so on – that are made up of different bits of real animals; the addition of birds wings to terrestrial beasts is the most frequently found motif. Finally, class d) contains things like the unicorn, which was really a misdescription of the rhinoceros that acquired mythical proportions. You will immediately ask, where does the dragon fit into this? The answer is that the dragon begins as a serpent of extraordinary size and then acquires composite characteristics, that is, wings; and becomes more lizard-like with the addition of four legs until it begins to look like a misdescription of an actual creature, particularly the crocodile. So we see that animals can display characteristics of the different classes and even move from one to another over time. The giant animals are similar to the misdescribed ones; the shape changers are similar to the composite ones. The first group represents humanity’s endeavour to understand the natural world; the second group its struggle to represent the supernatural world. Before the advent of science these were not always seen as different things. Normal things, such as storms and the raging sea, have god-like power to destroy and acquire supernatural interpretations: the harpies are personifications of the destructive force of the wind, for example. This means that we are constantly shifting perspective between natural history and theology where superstition and allegory rather than evidence and analysis are the principal authorities. Then there are also magical and ritual aspects to consider. Odin’s eight-legged horse, Sleipnir, for example, represents Odin’s power to move between the worlds of the living and the dead, and is comparable to the spirit-horses found in shamanism where the shaman’s journey is facilitated by such beings.

Finally, we should add class e) which comprises all those absurdities cooked up by unscrupulous individuals to dupe their fellow man and extract some of his coin. These are collectively known in the trade as Jenny Hanivers and comprise everything from makeshift mermaids to fraudulent fossils. The practice became such a nuisance to naturalists that the great ornithologist George Gray, FRS, complained in 1841 that ‘continental preparers of objects of Natural History still continue the shameful practice of endeavouring to deceive the zealous collector by false means, as in bygone days, when several such were published in splendid works, that have since been discovered to be manufactured for the purpose of obtaining large sums of money from amateurs who were struck by their magnificent appearance’ (Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 237). The celebrated Carolus Linnaeus, the father of modern scientific taxonomy, had been taken in by the Legless Bird of Paradise and Papilio ecclipsis, for example. Not to be left out, I have added a Lepus cornutus to my personal collection. They, too, are impossible and, whether stuffed, embalmed or fossilised, we would want them in our zoo.

There are some aspects of selection to note. I could have filled considerably more paper on the Egyptian gods, for example. But this is not the place to read about them in depth. Everyone has heard of Anubis, few of the Antelope Hodgsonii; the latter merits a longer entry precisely because of that. Furthermore, the mostly human, or sometimes human, characteristics of the Egyptian gods present a moral problem for our zoo that Hodgons’s Antelope does not. Also, being a Scot from a long line of Scots (despite the odd name, we go back to 1066), I could not shake off an affinity for all things Celtic, and by further ancestral connections, all things Nordic, and that, I think, shows in the foregoing, but I make no apologies for it. I have skimmed stones on Loch Ness and searched for runestones and petroglyphs on Bornholm; I have not, more’s the pity, left footprints in the Valley of the Kings.

So what of the status of this new-fangled thing, parazoology? For example, there is much debate over whether cryptozoology is a science or pseudoscience. For cryptozoology the answer is that it can be both depending on how well it adheres to accepted scientific method. As the study of hidden animals it is no more worthy of approbation than, say, cryptography, both can be done well or badly. It is an established fact that several creatures formerly considered to be legendary have in fact been discovered. But this is not a book of cryptozoology. If any of these creatures could be considered to be ‘crpyto’, hidden, then it is in the collective mind that we should search for them, not the jungles of Borneo. We live in a shared and constantly negotiated social reality that is something other than the world described by physics. We live in a world delimited by the capabilities of human physiology and psychology: we see black ravens; ravens see themselves as something else, much more colourful – you can see the hint of that on the plumage of ravens in strong sunlight. Religion proves that the world of the imagination is far more influential in human affairs than the world of facts and figures.

And beneath all this oddity of flying horses and world-encircling sea monsters, we see nature, as much of it as we can, as a fabulous thing. The crocodile is no less amazing than the dragon. The eagle is no less amazing than the griffin. We search for wonder, sometimes, most times, in the wrong places: it is already all around is. What this book did for me, and I hope that it will do for you, is rekindle my amazement at the natural world. Most of us go through a ‘dinosaur phase’ – the dinosaurs were far more ‘impossible’ than anything I am about to describe – we need to get back to that phase, because that state of wonder in respect of the natural world is uniquely human, therefore, it is what makes us human. Much of what you will read here comes from other people’s amazement as they relate tales of creatures or search for the truth of legends. As children we were in love with nature; as adults we just buy it in the supermarket and eat it. The choice is yours – and think on this: much of what exists today will become impossible tomorrow unless we rekindle that love; remember the dodo. This is much more than a book of weirdness: it is a call to arms, a call to humanity.

In writing this book I have read many similar books and hope to have learnt from them. In general, I found the most unsatisfying approach was to merely state that ‘this was that’ without reference to the source material. Consequently, wherever possible I have sought to find the sources and quote from them. For example, where some might say under Abada, ‘a small African unicorn’, or some such thing, by looking for the sources we find a whole world of context that takes us from Portuguese traders to British explorers. This makes this both a richer book and a more useful one. I hope that the reader will equally be able to sit down and enjoy reading through this book, as well as write a term paper or essay using it.

In the references listed for each entry I show where I have derived my information. In general, I prefer the earliest or most authoritative, but include recent research where illuminating. For reasons of space, the sources are not a bibliography of all works on the subject. When citing ancient authorities the standard form of referencing is used, rather than the specific edition, as this is always the most useful method, if, at first glance, the most perplexing to readers not used to this approach.

It is also as well here to introduce some of the sources used, since in the course of reading they will become familiar names, if they are not so already. Among the Ancient Greeks, the principal sources of monsterology are Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus. Homer is the traditional author of the Iliad and the Odyssey – the stories of the Trojan War and Odysseus’ return home afterwards – as well as the so-called Homeric Hymns; although, there is much debate on his identity and authorship.

Many of the writers may seem gullible from a modern perspective – some day we will seem gullible, too, no doubt – but accurate information was then scarce and the rest difficult to judge. Herodotus, for example, was only occasionally sceptical, but he qualified his position by saying ‘I write that which is reported; and nothing is impossible’ (Hist., IV.195) and he did not even know about the dinosaurs.

Among the Romans, Pliny the Elder is foremost, but also important are Lucan and Aelian. Pliny should have an entry in this book himself – he is just as amazing as all the rest. Born in 23 CE as Gaius Plinius Secundus, this Pliny the Elder, as we now know him, was a soldier and philosopher. He saw action in Germania as a young man and was procurator of Gallia Belgica at Trier, and much else besides, before writing the Naturalis Historia, his last work, and one that we will refer to frequently. It was a monumental encyclopedia in thirty-seven books of all that was known of the world at that time; it is only a pity that we will focus on so much that was inaccurate or exaggerated. He died in Pompeii during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 CE. If you are wondering who the Younger might be, it was his nephew, Gaius Caecilius – Pliny had no children and in his will adopted ‘the Younger’ as his heir. Lucan was Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (39 CE–65 CE), the most highly regarded poet of his time; all his peculiar natural history comes from his epic poem Pharsalia about the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Where Pliny kept his head down during the reign of Nero, Lucan stuck his out too far and was obliged to commit suicide. Aelian – Claudius Aelianus (c.175 CE–c.235 CE) – wrote much later, took much from Pliny in preparing his De Natura Animalium, but was still influential. It was not only read but translated by the important Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner (1516–1565), for example – and Gesner’s five volume Historiae Animalium (1551– 1558, 1587) is widely considered to mark the birth of modern zoology.

The Christian writers took much of what they knew from these ancients, but added much else besides, often of a religious nature; Isidore of Seville (c.560–636 CE) is their leader, but attention must be paid to the many bestiaries that were written and circulated in the Middle Ages. Finally, there is the class of travellers and explorers. Their tales were often no less bizarre than the tales of those who stayed at home. Here Marco Polo (c.1254–1324) and Sir John Mandeville, the supposed author of The Travels of Sir John Mandeville around 1357, will be our guides.

With regard to modern authors, we must use them warily. For example, a much-quoted entry in similar books is the ‘Á Bao A Qu’, a tedious creature that, to no particular effect, supposedly followed people up the ‘Tower of Victory in Chitor’ – this must be the imposing tower known as ‘Vijay Stambha’ in Chittorgarh Fort, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan, western India – but the creature is said to have originated from the Malay Penninsula. I checked books on Indian folklore and Malay folklore: nothing. It appears to have been invented by the Argentine fiction-writer Jorge Luis Borges in his Book of Imaginary Beings (1967), possibly as a joke aimed at one of his acquaintances who is named in the sources for this, and has no basis in local folklore. Not only that, the joke was not even funny. There is also the mysterious case of the Attercroppe, said to be a snake with human arms and legs, that has found its way into many recent collections, however, no reliable sources for this could be found. So, in many cases, when an entry is not included, it does not mean that it has not been researched. A book is always just the tip of an iceberg of research.

The supposed African Unicorn. Whilst in Cairo, the French explorer Antoine d’Abbadie wrote to the Athenaeum magazine in London, relating how a certain Baron von Müller had made the most astonishing discovery. Returning from Kordofan (also Kurdufan, a former province of central Sudan), the baron reported that on 17 April 1848 he had met a dealer in animal specimens in the town of Melpes, who offered him an a’nasa: ‘It is the size of a small donkey, has a thick body and thin bones, coarse hair, and tail like a boar. It has a long horn on its forehead, and lets it hang when alone, but erects it immediately on seeing an enemy. It is a formidable weapon, but I do not know its exact length. The a’nasa is found not far from here (Melpes), towards the south-southwest. I have seen it often in the wild grounds, where the negroes kill it, and carry it home to make shields from its skin.’ The baron added that the dealer was familiar with the rhinoceros, which he called Fetit, and distinguished it from the a’nasa. In June whilst at Kursi, also in Kordofan, the baron had met a slave-trader who claimed to have eaten an a’nasa recently: ‘its flesh was well flavoured’. Philip Henry Gosse, an important naturalist and Fellow of the Royal Society, brought this account to wider notice (Gosse, Rom. Nat. Hist., 290) and it was widely repeated (e.g., Gould, Myth. Mon., 346–7); it was first published in the Athenaeum (January 1849). See also Abada.

Basque, meaning ‘bullock’: a supernatural bull or bullock of Basque legend. Also known as Aratxegorri, ‘Red Bullock’. Related: Txaalgorri, ‘Red Bullock’; Zezengorri, ‘Red Bull’; Beigorri, ‘Red Cow’. It lives in caves, particularly that of Leze near Sare (Basque, Sara) in the French Pyrenees, and is said to punish naughty children, grant the wishes of parents and carry off those who do not fulfil their religious duties. The creature is also believed to come out on stormy nights and force people to return to their homes. In several caves – Istúritz, Goikolau, Santimamiñe, Sagastigorri, Covairada and Solacueva – Roman coins have been found attesting to ancient practices intended to appease cave-dwelling spirits. (Barandiarán, ‘Prähist. Höhlen’.)

A term for an evil spirit among the Yakut (Sakha) people of Siberia; variations include abaahi, abacy, abasi, or abasy, abassylar. In the epic poems (olonkho) of these people, they are described as having only one eye, one arm and one leg, sometimes riding on horses having two heads, eight legs and two tails. They are divided into three sorts: the ‘Upper’ who live in the western sky; the ‘Middle’ who live on the earth; and the ‘Lower’ who live below it. They are all considered to be harmful to men and, in particular, devour one of the three souls, the kut (the physical soul), upon death. They are ruled by Ulutuyer-Ulu-Toyon (‘Onmipotent Lord’), who himself may not be wholly evil, but also has the power to protect people from the abaasy. Formerly, the Yakut sacrificed horses to the upper abaasy and horned cattle to the lower abaasy. Whilst the abaasy themselves are human too, we would certainly like to include their horses in our impossible zoo. (Czaplicka, Sham. Sib.; Hatto, Essays, 128; Eiichirô, ‘“Kappa” Legend’, 114.)

Also abath; bada, of doubtful etymology, being either from Malay badak, ‘a rhinoceros’, or Arabic abadat, ābid, fem. ābida, meaning, amongst other things, ‘a wild animal’, via Portuguese badas, ‘rhinoceros’. An African word for a single-horned animal, seen as cognate with the Unicorn by early writers. Descriptions come from Portuguese Angola and old Abyssinia (Ethiopia). The name is first recorded in the seventeenth century by the Capuchin missionary Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi da Montecuccolo (1621–1678). Another Capuchin missionary, Girolamo Merolla da Sorrento, stated that in Angola: ‘Here is also the unicorn, called by the Congolans abada, whose medicinal virtue, being sufficiently known, needs not to be taken notice of. These unicorns are very different from those commonly mentioned by authors; and, if you will believe what I have heard say, there are none of that sort now to be found’ (Breve quoted and trans. in Pinkerton, Gen. Col., 211). A story attributed to a Portuguese man who had spent some time in Abyssinia is quoted by Father Balthazar Tellez (1596–1675), who himself had never been to Abyssinia. He distinguished the abada from the unicorn proper, principally on account of its having two horns, quite contrary to expectations: ‘The abada has two crooked horns, which are not so sovereign, although they will serve as antidotes against poison’ (Travels). See also Abath. (Gould, Myth. Mon., 347; Reade, Savage, 372–3.)

In the mythology of Melanesia, an eel with god-like powers who tries to destroy humankind by causing a catastrophic flood: ‘One day a man discovered a lake in which were many fish; and at the bottom of the lake lived a magic eel, but the man knew it not. He caught many fish and returned the next day with the people of his village whom he had told of his discovery; and they also were very successful, while one woman even laid hold of the great eel, Abaia, who dwelt in the depths of the lake, though he escaped her. Now Abaia was angry that his fish had been caught and that he himself had been seized, so he caused a great rain to fall that night, and the waters of the lake also rose, and all the people were drowned except an old woman who had not eaten of the fish and who saved herself in a tree.’ (Dixon, Ocean. Myth., 120.)

The female African Unicorn: in the Strait of Malacca in 1592 on his voyage to the East Indies, the Elizabethan privateer Sir James Lancaster sent commodities to the King of Junsaloam ‘to barter for Ambergriese and for the hornes of the Abath, whereof the king only hath the traffique in his hands. Now this Abath is a beast which hath one horn onely in her forehead, and is thought to be the female Unicorne, and is highly esteemed of all the Moores in these parts as a most soveraigne remedie against poyson’. It is usually interpreted as the rhinoceros. (Shepard, Lore, 218.)

A species of jointless elk mentioned by the Roman writer Pliny the Elder in the first century CE, alongside the normally jointed alces. In other editions of his Natural History the word machlis is also given, as in the first English translation from 1601: ‘A certaine beast, called the Alce, very like to an horse, but that his eares are longer; and his necke likewise with two markes, which distinguish them asunder. Moreover, in the Island Scandinavia, there is a beast called Machlis, not much unlike to the Alce abovenamed: . . .